A New Organizational Paradigm

A New Organizational Paradigm

Senge’s (1990) research illustrated that organizations must maintain maximum productivity, flexibility, and adaptability in a rapidly changing global environment to remain competitive. Innovation in technology created phenomenal growth in e-business over the last decade.  Advantages in e-business applications contribute to profitability (Quan, 2008).  New methods of leading and managing organizations transformed business processes; however, the benefits of e-business generally are attributed to varying processes created by changes in technology (Kanterman, 2008).  Goldsmith (2008) states push technology can help leaders grow, but the general problem is that the virtual workforce is managed using out of date models, degrading performance and innovation (Lojeski, 2010). More diversity as well as tacit knowledge is displayed among stakeholders than ever, creating a need for a new paradigm of systems thinking and organizational theory. The purpose of this paper is to propose a new systems thinking design for virtual organizations.

Background: theoretical approaches to virtual organizations

Jones (2010) acknowledged companies need to harness their employee’s unique talents and contributions to meet the organization’s goals “because these skills and abilities give an organization a competitive edge” (p. 270). Jill Jusko (2003) attributes four main reasons for organizational failures: 1) strategic or organizational mindset failures; 2) cultural bias and close-mindedness; 3) informational breakdowns; and 4) leadership mistakes. Rapid technological innovation and lack of training can leave employees uncomfortable with technology alienated. Jones (2010) stated, “…technology is present in all organizational activities:  input, conversion, and output” (p. 241).  Technology is an integral part in any company, driven by innovation and competition.

Advances in technology allow people to work from remote locations.  The practice of virtual leadership is growing worldwide. By 2011, 30% of the worldwide workforce is expected to work virtually, representing an increase from 758.6 million in 2006 to over 1.0 billion by 2011 (Morganson, Major, Oborn, Verive, & Heelan. 2010). According to Kaplan-Leiserson (2005), companies require new strategies to attract and retain adequately skilled virtual employees. McCallum and O’Connell (2009) project a growing need in virtual leadership skills. Though flexibility and autonomy are job advantages, the general problem is that professional isolation may serve as an opposing force (Morganson et al. 2010).

Independence and freedom are advantages of a virtual work arrangement, but the specific problem is few studies have explored job satisfaction as a result of a virtual leadership position.  The lack of research, information, and understanding of the relationship between job satisfaction and virtual work in a leadership capacity is a little-known phenomenon and a gap in the literature (Kaplan-Leiserson, 2005). Virtual organizations are generally managed and led by obsolete processes (Lojeski, 2010). According to Senge (1990) learning organizations are defined as

“…organizations where people continually expand their capacity to  create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free,  and where people are continually learning to see the whole  together.”

Traditional paradigms of rational, natural, open and hybrids of these theories fall short in emerging organizations that maximize technology, social media, and virtual teaming.  Technology accelerated the pace of business, and the speed of change requires flexible approaches and adaptable strategy to accommodate breakthrough technology and leadership tactics. Organizational modeling provides a template for tactical action in a company and a benchmark for research that contributes discoveries gained from the potential discoveries that may provide organizational leaders with the insight in motivating and enhancing performance of virtual leaders (Golden & Viega, 2008). Insights gained from research may be used to generate data and new knowledge useful in attracting, recruiting, coaching, and retaining successful leaders who are productive and effective in virtual organizations, optimizing organizational performance. The following chart explores, analyzes, and contrasts three traditional systems thinking paradigms.

Table 1

Three Systems Design Paradigms

Paradigm
	Characteristics	Advantages/Disadvantages	Industries	Examples
Rational	Goal attainment – organizations are formed to meet specific goals and objectives that are explicitly defined. Formalization – roles in organizations are defined by rules and standards, impersonal to the characteristics of individuals. Rational organizational systems are defined by high goal specificity and high formalization of roles and social norms. The paradigm encompasses characteristics and structure of the organization.	Clear definition of goals, direction, and objectives. Formal, rule-bound, impersonal. Explicit definitions minimize misunderstanding. Specific procedures, roles, and power delegation allows for easy duplication of organization benefitting growth of organization. No focus on people, impersonal. Focus on structure, not the rationality of people behind the roles. No creativity. Works in a stable economy without much innovation and change.	Chain stores such as McDonald’s Banks Military	Bank of America has a 25 volume guide that outlines how to do every transaction in the bank. Giving step by step instructions and requiring clear levels of authority for each transaction. University of Phoenix does not allow faculty to delete items in the syllabus, ensuring that the course is taught the same way with the same learning objectives regardless of location.
Natural	Developed largely due to criticisms of rational paradigm. Natural systems consider organizational behavior as viable due to goal complexity and informal social systems. It is recognized that rules often don’t guide human behavior and rational systems do not create predictable results. Natural organizations realize that many goals are pursued, some common and some disparate and that individuals operate in their own self-interest. Organizations often have multiple goals that may be in conflict to each other or contradictory. Informal social structures in organizations are often more powerful and important that defined lines of authority and communication.	Gives credibility to organizational behavior and individual roles that may be informally created. Acknowledges that organizations are complex, contradictory, and sometimes not congruent with discussed objectives. Is open to change and flux, recognizing the complexity of the organization includes that range of goals of the company shared by stakeholders, and also the various personal goals that may not be shared drive behavior. Greater predictability of organizational results when complex, overlapping, and conflicting goals are acknowledged. Focus is on common viewpoints and objectives shared by social collective to achieve goals. Domination is achieved by win-lose methods.  Those with greater power win. Conflict naturally occurs.	Most corporations including technology, finance, manufacturing. Microsoft Apple	New ideas are encouraged at Microsoft, but those with greater influence and power make decisions as to research and development allocation of funds. Dominance of upper management in challenging decisions such as layoffs, outsourcing, etc.
Open	Recognizes interdependence of organizations and the interaction with the external environment. Open system that studies, acknowledges, and works with the broader environment whether economic, political, social, or financial. Organic approach recognizes that organizations and their stakeholders react to the external environment.	Acknowledges globalization and various cultures. Studies competition and external threats to competition. Works with the environment and understands interdependence of resources, such as “green” organizations not wasting natural resources. Uses hierarchical and clustering views of reporting relationships. More abstract with loosely coupled goals. Divergent goals can lead to mistaken analysis and misunderstanding. Continual adaptation to environment maximizes potential harnessing of ideas and resources.	Most e-commerce companies such as Amazon, Dell, e-trade, Facebook University of Phoenix as a green organization	e-commerce firms use social media and other emerging technologies to interact with the environment, the competition, clients.  Open communication mediums provided via blogs, Twitter, Facebook.

 

Note: from Scott, W. R., & Davis, G. F. (2007). Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural, and open system perspectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Deconstructing a current world view in the context of underlying assumptions, paradigms, and models introduces a process to break out of limiting ideas and viewpoints. As Kuhn (1996) noted, paradigms and models are limiting and not final or all inclusive, thus he coined the phrase “paradigm shift.” To discuss what constitutes the self, several major approaches are taken.  The first is viewing the self in relation to others; our relationships define us. To communicate is a daily activity for most people.  As Lyotard (1984) discussed, “A self does not amount to much, but no self is an island; each exists in a fabric of relations that is now more complex than ever before” (p. 15).

New paradigm of systems thinking and organizational theory for virtual organizations

Albert Einstein once said: “Without changing our pattern of thought, we will not be able to solve the problems we created with our current pattern of thought.”  Thus conventional formulations and solutions based on the current environment are inadequate to deal with future change. Although most organizational leaders recognize this deficiency, they lack a paradigm that would assist them with organizational transformation.

An organizational theory is a philosophy on how to operate an organization. Power, relationships, communication, motivations, and the environment create and define reality. Various organized religions and philosophies shaped ethical conflicts between corporate expectations and behavior.  An example of this is during a cease and desist order in a bank, being encouraged as a corporate lender to sign a substantive loan based on bogus repayment sources.  Ethically, I knew that adhering to “above-board” business practices would eventually result in losing my position, the managers I worked for wanted employees who would lie and cheat to serve their career progress.

Labyrinth Systems Thinking – the paradigm web of processes

According to Dictionary.com (2010), a labyrinth is defined as any confusingly intricate state of things or events; a bewildering complex. In a dynamic, changing environment traditional models are limiting in application or misguided in execution.  Labyrinth Systems Thinking breaks down technical, human resource, political, and symbiotic elements of an organization into streamlined processes that are flexible in compilation and execution, hence the description of a paradigm web of process.  As processes can be combined in limitless combinations, new pathways for strategy, management and leadership are exposed.

In times of rapid technological information, consideration of the asynchronous global nature of information shared illustrates postmodern strategy in a complex environment of continual change. “The organization takes feedback from users – their experience and knowledge about a product – and combines it with the technical knowledge of their development staff to create new knowledge, for example best practices and lessons learned and ultimately new products ”  (Becerra-Fernandez et al, 2004, p. 306). By understanding the dynamic business environment online, vulnerabilities in strategic execution can be avoided.

Characteristics of the New Paradigm

Human resources aspects of the new paradigm. Technological innovation, increasing pressure to keep up with emerging technologies and virtual communications contribute to employee alienation. Using neo-modernist organizational theory that places value on human interaction in organizational structure assists employee engagement.   The disciplines of psychology, sociology, and anthropology are the basis for this theory.  Managers using this neo-modernist approach promote employee engagement within an organization (McAuley, Duberley, & Johnson, 2007). Stakeholders that are employees gain self-worth through cultural belonging, rewards systems, and recognition.

Benefits of the new paradigm. Organizational effectiveness lies on the ability to design the organization with a clear vision of the future direction of a company, to communicate, model, and enforce this vision to create an energetic focus with all stakeholders to move the organization in the desired direction. The future and the proper direction are needs based on the vision created by leadership.

The design and approach of the new labyrinth systems thinking theory is based on existing concepts and emerging empirical evidence.  A set of logical, empirical, and/or epistemological processes are created to allow for flexible strategic approaches in all areas of an organization.   Dispersed leadership is a product of a virtual organization. A flexible streamlined process of virtual leadership analyzes technology, communication, community, relationships, and culture. The issue of meaning is significant in business.  Leadership encompasses motivating and empowering employees.  Business leaders need strong people skills to listen actively   and communicate strategy.  As Kuhn (1996) discusses, gestalt experiments provide the nature of perceptual transformations, not previous patterns of information. Social media interventions thus merge experimentation with information obtained from obsolete paradigms as well as existing knowledge.

Conclusion

My consulting firm divisions are website development, consulting for e-commerce companies, leadership development, and instructional design for universities. Following trends in social media daily by reading industry newsletters, blogs, webinars, Internet radio, and Internet TV allow me to determine tactics for clients based on ideas, innovations, and the experiences of others. Knowledge capture is integrally tied to discovery, as I analyze performance to tactics practiced by clients and combine this information with cultural influence.  Entrepreneurship allows integration of values such as inclusion, fairness, openness, integrity, critical thinking, growth, and transformational leadership.

An example of community dynamics is the Internet. To compete effectively in the current business environment, especially in technology-based businesses such as online universities and e-commerce companies, access to timely and reliable information is crucial.  Several critical challenges must be overcome.  These challenges include the timeliness of information, the accuracy of information in a global marketplace, and viable critical thinking skills to create and execute strategy. E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership. Though information gained through tacit knowledge is difficult to measure with respect to cost/benefit, the opportunity to create tangible result from intangible pursuits effectively allow companies to compete and lay the groundwork for a competitive edge technology allows business to use emerging media in which there is no reliable blueprint for profitability and success.

References

Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge Management: Challenges, Solutions, and Technologies (1 ed.).

Golden, T., Viega, J. (2008, Feb.). The impact of superior-subordinate relationships on the commitment, job satisfaction, and performance of virtual workers. Leadership Quarterly, 19(1), 77. Retrieved from: http://www.ila-net.org/.

Goldsmith, M. (2008, Sept). E-tools that help teach leadership. Businessweek Online, 15. Retrieved from: http://www.businessweek.com/.

Jones, G. R. (2010). Organizational theory, design, and change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Jusko, J. (2003, Mar.). Managing change: Why reengineering projects fail. Industry Week, 252(3), 24. Retrieved from: http://www.industryweek.com/

Kanterman, R. (2008, Oct.). Leadership excellence: balancing management with leadership. Fire Engineering, 161(10), 113. Retrieved from: http://www.fireengineering.com.

Kaplan-Leiserson, E. (2005). Virtual work: It’s not just for members of the jedi council. T+ D, 59(8), 12 -13. Retrieved from: http://www.astd.org/content/publications/

Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lyotard, J. (1979). The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge (Theory and history of

literature, volume 10) University of Minnesota Press.

Lojeski, K. (2010). Leading the virtual workforce: How great leaders transform organizations in the 21st century. Retrieved from: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/Section/id-350044.html

McAuley, J., Duberley, J., & Johnson, P. (2007).Organization theory: Challenges and perspectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McCallum, S. O’Connell, D. (2009, Jan.). Social capital and leadership development: building stronger leadership through enhanced relational skills. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 30(2), Retrieved from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/journals/journals.htm?id=lodj.

Morganson, V., Major, D., Oborn, K., Verive, J., & Heelan, M. (2010). Comparing telework locations and traditional work arrangements. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25, 578-595. doi: 10.1108/02683941011056941

Quan, J. (2008). Evaluating e-business leadership and its links to firm performance. . Journal of Global Information Management, 16(2), 81. Retrieved from: https://www.irma-international.org/journals/details.asp?id=99

Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York:  Doubleday.

---

 

 

Philosophy of Meaning and Value Summary and Application Plan

Philosophy of Meaning and Value Summary and Application Plan

My journey to develop a personal philosophy of meaning and value, and nurturing the plan to acquire and apply meaning personally and professionally is inspiring.  Combining significant philosophical and postmodern approaches to life, ethics, values, and its materialization in career and personal growth expresses a voyage of discovery, analysis, fusion, creation, destruction and re-construction.  The puzzle of developing a personal philosophy of meaning and value expresses the process during the creation of the plan itself creating an application of postmodern ideology. The purpose of this paper is to share the personal philosophy of meaning and value using the first person, “I” to discuss my journey.  Incorporated into my philosophy is the nature of meaning and value, its purpose, analysis, justification, acquisition, and application in organizational settings.

Deconstructing a current world view in the context of underlying assumptions, paradigms, and models introduces a process to break out of limiting ideas and viewpoints. As Kuhn (1996) noted, paradigms and models are limiting and not final or all inclusive, thus he coined the phrase “paradigm shift.” To discuss what constitutes the self, several major approaches are taken.  The first is viewing the self in relation to others; our relationships define us.. To communicate is a daily activity for most people.  As Lyotard (1984) discussed, “A self does not amount to much, but no self is an island; each exists in a fabric of relations that is now more complex than ever before” (p. 15).

Personal Philosophy of Meaning and Value

The pathway to developing my Personal Philosophy of Meaning and Value matured through examining the various models, theories, and practices used to define personal cultural, psychological, physical, and spiritual views of personal reality and the world.   Exploration of postmodernist strategy in all disciplines characterized by deconstructing accepted models and paradigms, regardless of its previous influence in culture. Postmodernist theory removes categories and classifications, rejecting standard modernism. Instead power, relationships, communication, motivations, and the environment create and define reality.  Analyzing issues at a macro level allows me to cognize meaning in my life at personal and organizational levels.

I agree with Solomon’s (1999) statement that philosophy can help see beyond the self. from an elevated view, the perspective has changed and I can analyze myself at a level of abstraction beyond my concerns and problems.  The simple question, “Who am I” does beg identification in a context of career, family, social status, or possessions.  Materialism in the United States links economic status to personal identity.

Buddhism and other Eastern philosophies promote meditation and inward reflection to connect with the self.  It appears that most traditions agree with Solomon, we are all connected at a level, such as Jung’s collective unconscious. Jung (1959) asserted in his book Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (p. 43),

My thesis then, is as follows: in addition to our immediate consciousness, which is of a thoroughly personal nature and which we believe to be the only empirical psyche (even if we tack on the personal unconscious as an appendix), there exists a second psychic system of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all individuals. This collective unconscious does not develop individually but is inherited. It consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents.

Approach to Life

Clearly, my definition of meaningfulness in my life is in constant flux.  At present, completing my doctoral degree is meaningful as it infuses my entire thought processes, influencing my professional activities, personal relationships, and family interactions.  As I grow older, my power and scope of influence continues to expand.  I am now shifting from reacting to the actions of others by acknowledging personal responsibility in all relationships, analyzing a situation and developing insightful reaction that most benefits all stakeholders.

New situations that I will face as I develop will directly benefit from the critical thinking processes I am now polish. I am mindful, and value the meaning of each day.  My life becomes enriched as I make new constructions of meaning a habit. Team and community efforts require high-level complementary moral values, and personal improvements will empower me to make positive changes in all personal and professional interactions and actions.

In exploring various definitions and descriptions of postmodernism, a common theme emerged.  Postmodernist theory eliminates categories and classifications, rejecting standard modernism. According to Jameson (1991), postmodernism is the “dominant cultural logic of late capitalism.” Application of postmodernist strategy in all disciplines looks beyond previously accepted models and paradigms, regardless of its previous influence in culture.  To launch a personal postmodern self-analysis, the cultural, psychological, physical, spiritual models are identified as such.  It is unimportant that models were used, the focus is on the recognition that a model is in place is the goal. Deconstructing a current world view in the context of underlying assumptions, paradigms, and models initiates a process to break out of limiting ideas and viewpoints. As Kuhn (1996) noted paradigms and models are limiting, not final or all inclusive, thus he coined the phrase “paradigm shift.”

Ethics and Values

Creating meaning in my life is an ethical tribute to personal construction of meaning and value development and implementation.  Developing and understanding personal values allows sharing of complementary ideals in organizational settings.  According to Rest et al (2001), Kohlberg’s moral development model presents six stages of development:

1. Obedience and Punishment

2. Individualism and Exchange

3. Good interpersonal relationships

4. Maintaining the social order

5. Social contract and Individual rights

6. Universal principles

Moral and ethical development in the first couple of stages relies on external forces taught by parents and society.  As an adult, refined ideals taught me to evaluate situations in greater context than an absolute polarity. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (Kohlberg, 1971) partially explain the possibilities behind an individual’s moral perceptions and the decisions that are made fromthis (Weber & Wasieleski, 2001).  I attribute value to the Kohlberg model as shaping childhood experiences are accounted for illustrating values such as inclusion/exclusion, dominance/leadership, and power/nurturing are originally taught. Focusing on strong interpersonal relationships, respecting people, fair treatment, and building mutual trust contribute to my influence in both personal and professional situations. Ethics and values  created through action, behavior, and application by honoring the spirit of rules.

Application in Career Development

Shifting organizational visions and values now incorporate inclusion, society evolution such as diversity, religious, and spiritual values with company vision.  As a leader, I evaluate the context of situations to determine a fair position while viewing them at both at a micro and at a macro level.   Starling (1997) indicates that Nietzsche proposed there are no absolute morals, and I am in agreement with this philosophy.  Postmodernism challenges us to continually to develop and evaluate traditional paradigms, so my personal ethics are in constant flux and growth. As McKernon (2002) discusses, incorporating postmodernism into business allows an opportunity to break free from traditional tactical constraints, thereby encouraging a creative means of functioning in a complex, changing environment. Postmodernism is an opportunity to maximize an eclectic strategic focus that encompasses traditional corporate pragmatism with social, cultural, and technical gestalt.

Leadership Style. The best interest of an organization is to balance fairness with inclusion and nurturing.  The concept of transformational leadership is perhaps the current ideal.  In transformational leadership the relationship between leader and follower is positive.  Following the philosophy of win-win, the intention of transformational leading is to meet objectives but also provide growth and personal development for followers.  As Avolio and Yammarino (2002) discuss, transformational leadership brings benefits to followers such as intellectual stimulation, motivation, idealized influence, and personal consideration.  The follower gets an opportunity to go beyond creating a new vision set by the leader.  The follower experiences personal growth on the journey to organizational change.

A transformational leader is a willing role model. Transformational leaders are self-aware and confident.  True confidence and competence translates into organizational success.  As leadership is not sought for personal ego gratification, exchanges between leader and follower are genuine and mutually beneficial. Transformational leaders treat others well, and are often nurturing.  Behavior supporting the organizational goals and vision, linking to personal follower goals, and demonstrating emotional intelligence, Avolio & Yammarino (2002). As learners, we have many leaders, as followers, we are held to high expectations, nurtured, and guided to a new vision with optimism.

Values Applied at Work. Established value systems informally inherited from upbringing, as children we ground values based on family morals, religious exposure, and modeling adult behavior.  As I developed into an adult, I learned educational philosophies through undergraduate and graduate studies.  Various organizational experiences and corporate cultures created a business model framework.  Various organized religions and philosophies shaped ethical conflicts between corporate expectations and behavior.  An example of this is during a cease and desist order in a bank, being encouraged as a corporate lender to sign a substantive loan based on bogus repayment sources.  Ethically, I knew that adhering to “above-board” business practices would eventually result in losing my position, the managers I worked for wanted employees who would lie and cheat to serve their career progress.

Gender differences do influence treatment and reaction.  Though there may be differences in goals and application of ethics, I consider men and women morally equal.  As a woman, I have experienced treatment based on stereotypical assumptions, for example  considered to be less intelligent than a male counterpart.  In corporate situations, I was propositioned by married male executives often.  Not interesting in these types of activities, my rejection of advances in some instances transmuted to a slander of personal reputations.  According to Nietzsche, “Morality is based on a misunderstanding. It refers to a fictitious world and has no claim on us.” Lack of ethical sensibility and morality contributes to chaos; therefore I disagree with Nietzsches’ opinions in this context.

Application in Personal Growth

Postmodernism discusses communication and meaning in an environment of constant flux and change. Pierre Bourdieu (1984) controversially addressed the effects of environment, education, power, and influence on the social milieu and social class distinction. To create a reaction and critique of major theories and ideas, I deconstructed my ideas of social class, education, and visual preferences of my cultural environment in Los Angeles, California.

Applying personal meaning and value encompasses high-level cognitive skills such as emotional intelligence and critical thinking that I constantly practice to improve.  I recognize the creation of meaning and value is not absolute, what I was taught in childhood, extended family, by organizations, the media may not apply in present day.  Meaning and value creation with a postmodern twist includes analyzing the environment, inclusive of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats prior to constructing an interpretation or creating a personal or professional strategy to progress.

Development in Meaning and Value Gained

A thorough development of meaning and value gained by experiencing and processing numerous philosophies, theories, perspectives, and paradigms from the traditional, modern, and postmodern eras.  The opportunity to delve into personal, societal, and professional perspectives channels critical thinking activity as I analyze, synthesize, and deconstruct existing paradigms of meaning and value taught to date by familial, community, educational, and professional environments.  In addition, the opportunity to interact in discussions with peers allows learning multiple perspectives, opinions, and challenges experienced by individuals in a variety of professions and career paths.

Deconstruction

Studying the philosophies of illustrious thinkers in history, various systematic approaches to meaning and value led me to review traditional, modern, and postmodern paradigms and ideologies to analyze the practical application of views and thoughts.  Exploring the philosophy of knowledge grew from the works of the Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.  These philosophers agreed on the fixed nature of knowledge as absolute and did not acknowledge relativity.  Plato further defined knowledge as “justified true belief” supported by reason, (Moser, 2002).

Subsequently, the major philosophies of empiricism and rationalism developed after the Renaissance period. Empiricism considers knowledge gained by personal sensory experiences but rationalism confirms knowledge gained through rational thought. Modern philosophies grew from traditional beliefs, including the influence of technology and scientific development.  Postmodernism includes individual and social values with a dynamic approach that accounts for the continually changing environment that acknowledges values are fluid and may change.

Construction

My objective reality embraces global rights and values while honoring personal liberties.  Radical innovations, strategies, and tactics characterize postmodernism as information and knowledge are community-driven through expertise, popularity, or consensus.  Knowledge is continually evolving organically as known information changes to the global, local, or personal environment (McKernon, 2002). Influences of group perceptions or world views impact markets, consumerism, and business success.

The issue of meaning is significant in business.  Leadership encompasses motivating and empowering employees.  Business leaders need strong people skills to listen actively   and communicate strategy.  As Kuhn (1996) discusses, gestalt experiments provide the nature of perceptual transformations, not previous patterns of information. Social media interventions thus merge experimentation with information obtained from obsolete paradigms as well as existing knowledge.

How society constructs meaning takes a step back from the concept of knowledge, instead focusing on how society defines and views reality.  Underlying beliefs, assumptions, and ideas deconstructed discern a community groupthink of reality. Influences of group perceptions or world views impact markets, consumerism, and business success. Innovations in communication impact both conscious and subconscious influences on perceived reality, allow for an organic shift in reality and therefore valued beliefs. Application of business strategy in an organic system requires deconstructed organizational behavior strategic principles; working with the system and facilitating planned change (Summers et al, 1997).

Personal Examples

My management and leadership journey does support the idea that leadership is both an art and a science.  I strive as a transformational leader to practice self-awareness and confidence.  As leadership is not sought for personal ego satisfaction, exchanges between leader and follower are genuine and mutually beneficial. Behavior supporting the organizational goals and vision, linking to personal follower goals, and displaying emotional intelligence. Dynamics of the economy, innovation, globalization and competition demands customized leadership solutions and strategies that employ the benevolent aspects of all leadership styles.

Pierre Bourdieu embraced the postmodern approach of considering the entire social construct of a person inclusive of an entire field and habitus.  I agree random expressions of cultural capital benefit individuals and businesses.  In my consulting practice, to enhance client public relations I encourage businesses to build Facebook and Twitter followings.  The symbiotic capital I enjoy from social media interventions wins clients and revenue.  The increased cultural capital built successfully increases my personal and business social mobility.

My consulting firm divisions are: website development, consulting for e-commerce companies, leadership development, and instructional design for universities. Following trends in social media daily by reading industry newsletters, blogs, webinars, Internet radio, and Internet TV allow me to determine tactics for clients based on ideas, innovations, and the experiences of others. Knowledge capture is integrally tied to discovery, as I analyze performance to tactics practiced by clients and combine this information with cultural influence.  Entrepreneurship allows integration of values such as inclusion, fairness, openness, integrity, critical thinking, growth, and transformational leadership.

An example of community dynamics is the Internet. To compete effectively in the current business environment, especially in technology-based businesses such as online universities and e-commerce companies, access to timely and reliable information is crucial.  Several critical challenges must be overcome.  These challenges include the timeliness of information, the accuracy of information in a global marketplace, and viable critical thinking skills to create and execute strategy. E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership.  Technology allows business to use emerging media in which there is no reliable blueprint for profitability and success.

In times of rapid technological information, consideration of the asynchronous global nature of information shared illustrates postmodern strategy in a complex environment of continual change. “The organization takes feedback from users – their experience and knowledge about a product – and combines it with the technical knowledge of their development staff to create new knowledge, for example best practices and lessons learned and ultimately new products ” (Becerra-Fernandez et al, 2004, p. 306). By understanding the dynamic business environment online, vulnerabilities in strategic execution can be avoided.

Philosophy of Meaning and Value Action Plan

Experiencing this class allowed me to deconstruct and reconstruct meaning and value in my life both personally and professionally.  The opportunity to analyze and synthesize traditional, modern, and postmodern philosophies granted a challenge to extract the most relevant ideologies and form ideals to integrate in business and life. In absence of a solid history of strategic planning, leaders must rely heavily on outside information.  Though resources disbursed an astuteness is necessary, it appears the Internet provides a timely source of information. To direct an online business successfully (whether in the role of consultant or business owner) requires some solid skills.

Of further interest is the timeline in the evolution of theories compared with development of modern organizations.  Pure trait leadership considers attributes not learned but genetic.  One could argue that charismatic leadership uses natural talent as well…not everyone can learn to generate charisma.  Situational leadership and transformational leadership make use of learned skills obtained by formal education and experience.  A concern of trait, situational, and charismatic leaders is the treatment of followers.  Transformational leadership is the only style that puts significance on the welfare of followers. The postmodern leadership paradigm allows flux and change, thereby valuing inclusion, technology, relationships, and evolution.

In my organization, tacit information plays an important role in deciding strategies and tactics for emerging client organizations.  Knowledge management itself is both an art and a science as social media effectiveness relies on not only the tools used but also the manner in which the knowledge is administered to target market clients in a value-based system. Successes and failures in tactical implementation create new opportunities for value discovery, allowing for more concrete future implementations.

Though information gained through tacit knowledge is difficult to measure with respect to cost/benefit, the opportunity to create tangible result from intangible pursuits effectively allow companies to compete and lay the groundwork for a competitive edge. My company organization uses observation, research, technology, and consumer feedback to capture data. Strategies for knowledge discovery in place include data gathering by interview, networking, professional organization seminars, and online research.  I plan to expand discovery and capture by adding a blog allowing feedback to my organization in which clients can share case studies and success stories resulting from performing services provided by my firm.  I also intend to add blogs to my client websites so more information sharing can occur with valid feedback, to implement inclusion andrelationship building. Putting these strategies into practice creates a sound postmodern leadership intervention supporting my construction of meaning and value.

References

Avolio, B. J., & Yammarino, F. J. (2002). Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead. San Diego, CA: Emerald.

Bourdieu, P. (n.d.)  Pierre Bourdieu on cultural capital. Retrieved from:  http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-5-learning-personalities/pierre-bourdieu-on-cultural-capital/.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste.Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved July 23, 2010 from        https://www.ecampus.phoenix.edu

Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. Random

House, Inc.

Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Jung, Carl. (1959). Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.

Kohlberg, L. (1971). Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In C. M. Beck, B. S. Crittenden and E. V. Sullivan (Eds.), Moral education: Interdisciplinary approaches. New York: Newman Press.

Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lyotard, J. (1979). The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge (Theory and history of

literature, volume 10) University of Minnesota Press.

McKernon, S. (2002, February). The PoMo in you. NZ Marketing Magazine, 21(1), 10

Moser, P. K., & Vander Nat, A. (2002). Human Knowledge: Classical and Contemporary Approaches. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/

Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Thoma, S. J. & Bebeau, M. J. (2000, December). A Neo-Kohlbergian approach to morality research. Journal of Moral Education, 29(4), 381.

Starling, G. (1997, May/June). Business ethics and Nietzsche. Business Horizons, 40(3), 2.

Solomon, R. C. (2002) Spirituality for the skeptic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?

Solomon, R. C. (2003) The joy of philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?

Starling, G. (1997, May/June). Business ethics and Nietzsche. Business Horizons, 40(3), 2.

Weber, J. & Wasieleski, D. (2001). Investigating influences on managers’ moral reasoning. Business and Society, 40(1), 79-111.  Retrieved August 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 69081307).

Philosophical Critique: Pierre Bourdieu

Philosophical Critique: Pierre Bourdieu

The postmodern influential thinker, Pierre Bourdieu (1 August 1930 – 23 January 2002), was a French sociologist and philosopher.  Bourdieu worked to reveal the dynamics of power in social relationships by coining and exploring the ideas of cultural, symbolic, and social capital and ideas of location, habitus, and field, (Bourdieu, n.d.).  According to Jameson (1991), postmodernism is as the “dominant cultural logic of late capitalism.” Social theory encompassing class distinctions supported Bourdieu’s vision that judgment and taste preferences relate to individual experience about social position. Bourdieu was a controversial public figure in France, considered an outstanding scholar with influence in sociology (Englestad, 2008).

Bourdieu’s theory founded on traditional ideas of social order, domination, and symbolism supported social classification.  Bourdieu’s postmodern theories drew on work by Marx, Weber, Levi-Strauss, Husserl, and Wittgenstein. Transcending polarity by examining and overcoming opposing forces such as micro/macro, subjectivism/optimism, and freedom/determinism through the ideas of field, capital, and habitus represented the work of Bourdieu (Karakayali, 2004).  The purpose of this analysis is to discuss Bourdieu’s phenomenology and major theoretical ideas and to examine critically personal beliefs, to deconstruct my current world view in the context of underlying assumptions, paradigms, and models introduced to break out of limiting ideas and viewpoints.

Bourdieu on Cultural Capital

Fundamental Concepts

Bourdieu embraced an idea that the educational system breeds social inequality through mirrored correlations because of habitus and cultural capital.  The concept of habitus originated with Aristotle and is understood as a biased interpretation of social construction. Examples of habitus include dispositions, taste, and preferences. A field is the space of an agent and the social position. A position of an agent in a field composed of field rules, habitus, and the social, economic, and cultural capital of the agent. Cultural capital is  non-financial assets such as intellect and education that may influence social mobility. The concept of social capital refers to the value of social networks that create equality or inequality. Symbiotic capital grants resources to an individual based in honor, fame, or prestige (Bourdieu, 1984).

Major Theoretical Concepts

Significant paradigms in Bourdieu’s work bridged the relationship between constructing a world view through social dynamics. Bourdieu’s best known book, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, relates opinions of preference and taste to social position.  The theories substantiated by interviews, surveys, and data while considering tacit experiences mitigated with social structure. Ties between social class and artistic, linguistic, and stylistic choices draw class relationships based on emptirical research (Bourdieu, 1984).

Social Stratification. Pierre Bourdieu’s (1984) observation of a social hierarchy or stratification based on aesthetic preferences discusses the way an individual presents him or herself to the world as a viable mechanism to establishing social position. Symbolic goods establish distinction, and “differences in cultural capital mark the differences between the classes,” (1984). Upward social mobility through education is common.  Early childhood influences shape tastes and ideals, so a social position is thereby replicated from parent to child. Individuals work through complex social relations directly and indirectly, amassing present-day ideals in politics, education, and the arts. Social class ties not only to, but also the cumulative experience of all social relations experienced. Preferences in media as well as the degree of power and influence cumulatively influence determination of social class position.

Language. As with other postmodern philosophers, Bourdieu acknowledges the power how language is used.  Manifestations of social mobility through the cultural capital use of language, acquired through exposure to the intellectual classes rather than formal education.  Bourdieu (1984) believed the power of formal education is proportionate to the social class experienced in family upbringing. Education assists in reproducing the higher social classes through development of language, skills, and gifts. The influence of education is significant, but inequality in social mobility is achieved based on the social background of the student as social dispositions learned at a young age.

Food, Art, and Culture. Bourdieu (1994) theorized that the preferences in food, art, and culture an individual grows up with influences later social practices determining social position.  Economic ideologies are insufficient to analyze social class.  Fields as guidance are wider than previous social guidelines, using exploration of postmodernist strategy in all disciplines characterized by looking beyond previously accepted models and paradigms, regardless of its previous influence in culture.

Class Fractions. Symbiotic goods composed of economic, social, and cultural values  deemed class fractions that teach the younger generation aesthetic judgment serves to mark social class, stated Bourdieu (n.d.). Social origin largely influences taste in presentation, art, and food considered determinants in the social strata. Though individuals may shape their actions,  Bourdieu (1884) indicated “respondents are only required to express a status-induced familiarity with legitimate…culture.”

Personal Reaction and Critique

Postmodernism discusses communication and meaning in an environment of constant flux and change. Pierre Bourdieu controversially addressed the effects of environment, education, power, and influence on the social milieu and social class distinction. To create a reaction and critique of major theories and ideas, I deconstructed my ideas of social class, education, and visual preferences of my cultural environment in Los Angeles, California.

Growing up in the Westside of Los Angeles, the cultural surroundings forming my aesthetic tastes as a child  rooted in wealth.  I grew up in a community populated with successful, wealthy families working in the entertainment industry.  I agree with Bourdieu’s assessment that lifestyle preferences exposed as a child shape adult taste.  Though I do not live in the same community as an adult, I am in a similar neighborhood about an hour south of my childhood town. I live in a wealthy country setting, drive a Mercedes, am discriminating in my activities and run my business from home.

Education in the United States does influence social position.  I agree that identity can change based upon the situation.  Kalampalikis Haas (2008) discuss “cognitive polyphasia” that results from “the dynamics of social thought and its entry into moving settings” (p. 453).  As people go through their daily lives, they play different roles in relationship to the people around them – parent, spouse, customer, employee, boss, neighbor, etc. – and each of these social relationships requires a different pattern of speech. The transit to a high-level career relies on more than education and language.  Cognitive abilities, the economic areas of growth, and competition all affect opportunity.  I disagree with Bourdieu’s assessment of  inequality based on the social class one is brought up in, as other mitigating factors influence social position. In the United States, upward social mobility through education is common.

Aesthetic influence plays a part in social activities such as choices in food, art, and social activities.  Class fractions including particular symbiotic goods could improve a social position, for example joining an upscale tennis club may result in friendships and socializing with a higher social structure, categorizing tennis an upscale sport.

Pierre Bourdieu embraced the postmodern approach of considering the entire social construct of a person inclusive of an entire field and habitus.  I agree random expressions of cultural capital benefit individuals and businesses.  In my consulting practice, to enhance client public relations I encourage businesses to build Facebook and Twitter followings.  The symbiotic capital I enjoy from social media interventions wins clients and revenue.  The increased cultural capital built successfully increases my personal and business social mobility. To close, Bourdieu opened significant opportunities for exploration too finite for absolution, though the influence and exploration of the ideas Bourdieu created have value in social consideration. Bourdieu contributed thought to the suffering of lower classes and cultural diversity.

References

Bourdieu, P. (n.d.)  Pierre Bourdieu on cultural capital. Retrieved from:  http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-5-learning-personalities/pierre-bourdieu-on-cultural-capital/.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved July 23, 2010 from        https://www.ecampus.phoenix.edu

Engelstad, K. K. (2008). eMuseum at Minnesota State University – Pierre Bourdieu. Retrieved from http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/bourdieu_pierre.html

Fowler, Bridget, Pierre Bourdieu and Cultural Theory: Critical Investigations (London, California and New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997).

Grenfell, Michael (2004). Pierre Bourdieu: Agent Provocateur. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-6709-1.

Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Kalampalikis, N., & Haas, V. (2008). More than a Theory: A New Map of Social Thought. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 38(4), 449-459. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2008.00381.x.

Karakayali, Nedim. 2004. “Reading Bourdieu with Adorno: The Limits of Critical Theory and Reflexive Sociology,” Sociology (Journal of the British Sociological Association), v.38, n.2, pp.351-368.

Constructing Personal Reality and its Influence on Leadership

Constructing Personal Reality and its Influence on Leadership

The purpose of this paper is to examine the various models, theories, and practices used to define personal cultural, psychological, physical, and spiritual views of personal reality and the world.  Discussing postmodern theory, the effect of personal meaning and its expression in leadership activities applied to organizational development in my consulting firm, while integrating the relational effect on clients and other organizational stakeholders. Exploration of postmodernist strategy in all disciplines characterized by looking beyond previously accepted models and paradigms, regardless of its previous influence in culture.

Postmodernist Ideas

In exploring various definitions and descriptions of postmodernism, a common theme emerged.  Postmodernist theory removes categories and classifications, rejecting standard modernism. Instead power, relationships, communication, motivations, and the environment are investigated to create and define reality. According to Jameson (1991), postmodernism is defined as the “dominant cultural logic of late capitalism”. To launch a personal postmodern self-analysis, I identified general cultural, psychological, physical, spiritual models. The detection of specific models considered is unimportant, the focus is on the recognition that a model is in place is the goal. Deconstructing a current world view in the context of underlying assumptions, paradigms, and models introduces a process to break out of limiting ideas and viewpoints. As Kuhn (1996) noted, paradigms and models are limiting and not final or all inclusive, thus he coined the phrase “paradigm shift”.

Communication

The role of language and communication in general is a significant theme in postmodernism.  Francois Lyotard (1984) observed the game of communication, as conversations can be reactive with one party exercising power over another. Communication is the passage, interchange, and transfer of information, ideas, and emotions.  The act or process of communicating involves sending messages by speech, visual communications, symbols, storytelling, and other means.

Means of Communication

To communicate is a daily activity for most people.  As Lyotard (1984) discussed, “A self does not amount to much, but no self is an island; each exists in a fabric of relations that is now more complex than ever before” (p. 15).  Communication occurs on all levels of personal and business interactions to help sharing knowledge and ideas. Technology furthers communications by providing electronic means to share information by using the Internet, mobile devices, videoconferencing, and emerging methods.

Obstacles to Communication

Barriers to communication include interpretation of language, variations in understanding, communications skills, and targeting information to an appropriate audience.  As Kuhn (1996) pointed out, “Even in the mathematical sciences there are also theoretical problems of paradigm articulation…” (p. 33). I believe that communication skills continually developed facilitate genuine exchange of information and ideas. To me, the meaning of communication is an accurate and shared exchange, and Foucault (1970) asserted that “…because grammar is dealing with language, that is, with a system of representation required both to designate and to judge, or again, related to both an object and a truth” (p. 191).

Global Community and Constructing Meaning

Radical innovations, strategies, and tactics characterize postmodernism as information and knowledge are community-driven through expertise, popularity, or consensus.  Knowledge is continually evolving organically as known information changes to the global, local, or personal environment (McKernon, 2002). Influences of group perceptions or world views impact markets, consumerism, and business success.

Community Influence and Perception

An example of community dynamics is the Internet. To compete effectively in the current business environment, especially in technology-based businesses such as online universities and e-commerce companies, access to timely and reliable information is crucial.  Several critical challenges must be overcome.  These challenges include the timeliness of information, the accuracy of information in a global marketplace, and viable critical thinking skills to create and execute strategy. E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership.  Technology allows business to use emerging media in which there is no reliable blueprint for profitability and success.

In times of rapid technological information, consideration of the asynchronous global nature of information shared illustrates postmodern strategy in a complex environment of continual change. “The organization takes feedback from users – their experience and knowledge about a product – and combines it with the technical knowledge of their development staff to create new knowledge, for example best practices and lessons learned and ultimately new products ” (Becerra-Fernandez et al, 2004, p. 306). By understanding the dynamic business environment online, vulnerabilities in strategic execution can be avoided.

The Issue of Meaning

The issue of meaning is significant in business.  Leadership encompasses motivating and empowering employees.  Business leaders need strong people skills to listen actively   and communicate strategy.  As Kuhn (1996) discusses, gestalt experiments provide the nature of perceptual transformations, not previous patterns of information. Social media interventions thus merge experimentation with information obtained from obsolete paradigms as well as existing knowledge.

How society constructs meaning takes a step back from the concept of knowledge, instead focusing on how society defines and views reality.  Underlying beliefs, assumptions, and ideas deconstructed discern a community groupthink of reality. Influences of group perceptions or world views impact markets, consumerism, and business success. Innovations in communication impact both conscious and subconscious influences on perceived reality, allow for an organic shift in reality and therefore valued beliefs. Application of business strategy in an organic system requires deconstructed organizational behavior strategic principles; working with the system and facilitating planned change (Summers et al, 1997).

Personal Reality and Influence

I own and operate a consulting firm, Liz Musil Consultants, with these divisions: website development, consulting for e-commerce companies, leadership development, and instructional design for universities. Creating tactical and strategic goals considers the asynchronous global nature of information shared.  To maximize my mission, vision, and values as well as the mission, vision and values of my clients, I take the following qualities into consideration: accurate knowledge, speed of delivery, asynchronous delivery, and security.

Following trends in social media daily by reading industry newsletters, blogs, webinars, Internet radio, and Internet TV allow me to determine tactics for clients based on ideas, innovations, and the experiences of others. Knowledge capture is integrally tied to discovery, as I analyze performance to tactics practiced by clients and combine this information with cultural influence. As Goldman (1999) revealed, technological innovations provide new means of sharing data and knowledge, however the information sent does not ensure its receipt by the target audience.  Consumers of online information must discern between valuable, relevant, or incorrect data. Postmodernism discusses communication and meaning in an environment of constant flux and change.

McKernon (2002) analyzed that the contextual meanings and styles of consuming impact business strategy in a deeper, more meaningful manner than need-based theory.  Analysis of consumer values, negotiated needs and wants provide an exchange of information to construct meaning that allows a postmodernist approach to marketing efforts.  Working with the two-way push and pull of information creates greater satisfaction and success over traditional push strategies. Knowledge sharing is customized in my industry, no formula for success is guaranteed.  I share to further my organizational goals and those of my clients via tactical experimentation.  The connectivity that technology provides allows for mass sharing of data in both directions.  I view the postmodern practices I use as an interrelated, overlapping, organic cycle allowing creativity, depth, and success to evolve outside preconceived ideas, models, and approaches.

References

Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge Management: Challenges, Solutions, and Technologies (1 ed.).

Foucault M., (1970). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. Ny, NY: Random House Inc.

Goldman, A. I. (1999). Knowledge in a social world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.

Lyotard, J. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

McKernon, S. (2002, February). The PoMo in you. NZ Marketing Magazine, 21(1), 10.

Summers, D. J., Boje, D. M., Dennehy, R. F., Rosile, G. M. & et al (1997, August). Deconstructing the organizational behavior text. Journal of Management Education, 21(3), 343-360.

Personal Philosophy of Knowledge

Personal Philosophy of Knowledge

As I progress in my journey to develop a personal philosophy of knowledge, nurturing the plan to acquire and apply knowledge appeared daunting.  Combining significant philosophical and historical approaches to knowledge, epistemology, and justification expresses an infinite loop of discovery, analysis, fusion, creation, destruction and re-creation.  The puzzle of developing a personal philosophy of knowledge is the need to experience the process during the creation of the philosophy itself. The purpose of this paper is to share the personal philosophy of knowledge cultivated over the past seven weeks.  Incorporated into my philosophy is the nature of knowledge, its purpose, analysis, justification, acquisition, and application in organizational settings. A personal action plan for gaining and applying knowledge is rationalized.

Before Enlightenment – The Personal Philosophy of Knowledge Journey

I approach my Personal Philosophy of Knowledge (PPK) as a journey embarked on seven weeks ago. At the beginning of this process, I did not have a formal “philosophy of knowledge”. Because of broadening scope I experience through reading, sensory information gathering, taking part in discussions, assignments, and self-analysis, I am advancing my formation, understanding, and execution of a “philosophy of knowledge”. Seven weeks ago, I approached this process cautiously as I often rely on tacit knowledge in my discovery process.  Tacit knowledge recognizes personal experiences “in the ideals, values, or emotions” (Nonaka Nishiguchi, 2001, p. 14). I expected the journey as heavily rooted in inductive and deductive reasoning, leaving little or no room for hunches, intuitive, or emotional consideration.  I discovered the tools and strategies in the course are thorough enough that I may develop a personal philosophy that is realistic and applicable in my personal and professional life.

The Nature and Purpose of Knowledge

Plato lists three main aspects of knowledge: belief, truth, and justification (Becerra, Gonzalez, & Sabherval, 2002).  Denning’s (2002) definition of knowledge as “the ideas, understandings which an entity possesses that are used to take effective action to achieve the entity’s goal(s). This knowledge is specific to the entity that created it.” The two ideas I choose to further explore are “entity” and “goals”. For example, I assume I am an entity.  The premise of the argument is that for all ideas and understandings considered valid knowledge, the information must aid me in carrying out a goal or objective.

Does Denning consider only formal goals or is any intended result implied? Is my ability to create e-commerce websites part of a goal to make money, assist clients, or release my creativity? Am I simply enjoying being part of the online hype using emerging technologies? I think Denning created a solid definition of knowledge if consideration applies to a broad definition of goals.  A goal is defined as an accomplishment that occurs by direction or as a by-product of any activity.

What is the purpose of knowledge? Later thinkers point out knowledge as the relationship between ideas in a topic or area (Becerra-Fernandez, 2004). The concept of knowledge recognizes these relationships, allowing knowledge discovered, manipulated, and controlled.  An example is a relational database management system, where tables are organized and coded based on simple relationships such as one-to-one and one-to-many.

Integrating Historical Approaches to Knowledge

Insightful understanding of different philosophical movements can be challenging, though integration ,and analysis supported my philosophical journey. Various approaches throughout history define ideas of thought, and my challenge is to clarify individual philosophies about the rationale, role, and application of knowledge. The Greek philosopher Plato explained knowledge as tied to and supported by reason (Moser, 2002).  Plato further assessed that knowledge is only what cannot be changed, an assertion I disagree with as the universe is now understood to be in continual flux and change. To illustrate, technological innovation over the past years demonstrates continual change.

Knowledge belief. I agree with Plato’s main assertion of belief, truth, and justification.  Knowledge discovered through sensory experience expresses empiricism. Reason may not support emerging discovery, but empiricism supports probability. Studying online strategies for competing organizations that intuitively resonate with me provides a paradigm of sensory knowledge discovery.  Using rationalism by applying reason, I further fine tune the value of data gained. Pragmatism allows consideration of useful information as true, and allows the opportunity to reason and create a workable model that allows logical leaps of faith (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 9). The technology-based field I work in requires a healthy relationship with skepticism.  Innovative emerging technologies generally come with promises and hype.  I approach new claims with a questioning attitude, to discern credible data from unsupported propaganda.

Knowledge truth. The success of strategy is dependent on emerging technologies, experimentation, and creativity. I incessantly strive to create new knowledge useful to my clients and their organizational success. To facilitate a benchmark at the beginning of the process, I first assess what I know. I review applicable theories, analyze reasoning, probability, viability, and usefulness.  Historical definitions provide a framework of understanding and exploration through logical and organic methods. I further assess information by knowledge discovery that includes research, data gathering, analyzing competitive forces, the economy and the potential impact of these forces on the client business cycle.  Relevancy of knowledge is questioned using a cost/benefit analysis.

As a representation of the client’s business evolves, I use knowledge acquired as a catalyst to create projections.  Sensory knowledge such as intuition and insight at this point factors into  knowledge creation.  Once justified, the information can be applied to meet client organizational goals and objectives in support of the company’s mission, vision, and values.

Knowledge justification. As individuals, we may have varying means of justifying information as personally relevant and based on individual background, assumptions, and education. As I research data applicable to my client organizations, I am mindful to compare and contrast my views of data gathered with the opinions and ] assumptions of my client. A multi-faceted view of data created is analyzed from various perspectives by different individuals.  This approach confirms leaps of faith and reasoning processes used to reach assumptions as new knowledge is generated.

According to Holt (2005), “Justification, according to the tripartite theory of knowledge, is the difference between merely believing something that is true, and knowing it. To have knowledge, on this account, we must have justification.”  The tripartite theory of knowledge dates back to Plato, and discusses inferential justification for validation.  A belief is then justified based on another underlying belief that is already accepted. To illustrate this concept, a foundational idea is that social media interventions helps e-commerce companies prosper. Based on the accepted foundational idea, an e-commerce firm approaches my consulting company.  The client, the e-commerce firm has a good reason the foundational idea is true.  In this example, the client reviewed statistical results that supported the success of social media interventions in boosting profitability in other organizations. My client, the e-commerce company, decides a social media policy and strategy will assist their company is meeting organizational goals and objectives of increased profitability.

Justification theories rely on idea, rationality, and probability.  Epistemology focuses on justified beliefs. Haack (1993) distinguishes justification applied to propositional knowledge, describe as “knowledge that” versus “knowledge how”. According to Fumerton (2005), various justification theories and techniques exist.  A basic example is: “To be justified in believing P on the basis of E one must be justified in believing E.” The context of epistemic justification necessitates relational acceptance between logical facts and concurrence on essential underlying assumptions.

Means of Knowledge Acquisition

My organization uses explicit knowledge to measure statistical data and tacit knowledge to apply the results to plan, refine, and evaluate a client organizational strategy (Becerra-Fernandez, et al, 2004).  The knowledge creation and discovery process is complex and involves developing new tacit or explicit knowledge by using knowledge-based systems. Aristotle considered logical data gathering as knowledge acquisition, although Plato accepted awareness in defining universal forms (Heylighten, 1993).

Knowledge Discovery and Capture. Organizational artifacts and stakeholders provide strategic knowledge to organizations that contribute to the creation and support of a knowledge management organization. A key area in knowledge creation is storytelling.  Storytelling allows information sharing between various organizational stakeholders such as clients, employees, organizational leaders, and management.  A popular vehicle for storytelling is the blog.  A blog is an area of a website reserved for discussion, commentary, events, and images.  Listed entries are in reverse chronological order (Brain, 2010). Blogs allow sharing relevant information, feedback, brainstorming, and idea sharing. My organization uses observation, research, technology, and consumer feedback to discover and capture data.

Knowledge Sharing. Tacit information can contribute to organizational goal setting, leadership style, and community outreach.  Explicit information gathered and justified is shared to promote organizational goal attainment.  Various organizations maintain blogs to provide a forum which consumers can recommend products and services.  This method of word-of-mouth serves as low cost advertising for the company.

Visual communications is a popular vehicle for knowledge sharing.  Barriers to communication can be overcome by sharing knowledge visually through diagrams, graphs, and charts.  PowerPoint presentations provide a visually appealing method to relay information.  Graphs, charts, and images are embedded to communicate ideas clearly.  Visual communication tools effectively dissolve communication barriers between technical and nontechnical audiences.

Knowledge Management in Organizations

The framework of epistemology expanded to the practical management of knowledge management (KM) in organizations. Competitive companies boost the competitive edge by implementing KM tactics, which include knowledge discovery, knowledge capture, and knowledge sharing. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) accept organizational benefits realized when a KM system is used.

Organizations practicing KM require organizational leadership approaches that support the Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) implemented.  A KM leader maximizes organizational potential by practicing suitable leadership strategies matching needs of the tasks, goals, and stakeholders. Emerging technologies provide tools to allow for effective KM by fulfilling KBS. Interventions are aligned with the vision, mission, and values of the organization.

Personal Action Plan for Acquiring and Applying Knowledge

E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership.  In absence of a solid history of strategic planning, leaders must rely heavily on outside information.  Should business owners rely on information not updated at a pace congruent with the online economy?  Though resources are disbursed and astuteness is necessary, it appears the Internet provides a timely source of information. To direct an online business successfully (whether in the role of consultant or business owner)  requires some solid skills. Because of the rapid pace of an e-commerce business and the opportunity for success, these goals are challenging in our current information dependent society (Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. 1989, January 10).  Success in the information age can be influenced by decisions based on poor information or obsolete data.

I classify my consulting practice as a knowledge creation company. The decision theories and problem-solving reasoning  not predicated on an existing design and strategy is created using incomplete information without a clear framework. To mitigate risk, I created a Personal Philosophy of Knowledge (PPK) and a Personal Action Plan for acquiring and applying knowledge.

Personal Philosophy of Knowledge (PPK)

According to Stoud (2002), “The philosophical study of human knowledge seeks to understand what human knowledge is and how it comes to be”. Nonaka’s (2001) contemporary epistemological theories integrate with science exploring the potential for artificial intelligence. To embark on my personal philosophy of knowledge, I begin by saying that my senses are how I perceive the world.  I receive information through my senses, creating a foundation for belief supported by the theory of empiricism. Epistemology is how I think, evaluate true and false data (skepticism), and organize information. To acquire understanding about the world, I employ reason and rationalism. Logic drives consistency in the information and knowledge I manage. Pragmatism influences the use of objectivity to associate knowledge and discover its usefulness and force. Ideas are abstractions of reality to be analyzed. Rationality is a means to build a correct epistemology. The extent of correctness in my epistemology is the degree of understanding reality, and effectiveness in achieving goals and objectives.

To illustrate, I research to gain knowledge of how to use social media for a client who works with inventors to sell products on television. Internet research involves empiricism by definition; I use my intuition and hunches to gather information on the target market of inventors of new products.  Synthesizing the information gathered, I discover by reason viable targets (rationalization).  Pragmatism promotes using already successful targets as a benchmark, while skepticism disqualifies promises that sound false or unlikely.

Personal Action Plan

My aim is of my personal action plan is to practice the Personal Philosophy of Knowledge (PPK) personally and professionally.  Integrating all perspectives of analysis broadens the current scope of knowledge discovery and deduction practiced. I identify my consulting practice as a knowledge management (KM) organization heavily focused on knowledge creation.   Currently my consulting firm, Liz Musil Consultants, includes  divisions: website development, consulting for e-commerce companies, leadership development, and instructional design for universities.

Knowledge discovery and capture. In my organization, tacit information plays an important role in deciding strategies and tactics for emerging client organizations.  KM itself is both an art and a science as social media effectiveness relies on not only the tools used, but also the manner in which the KM is administered to target market clients. Successes and failures in tactical implementation create new opportunities for KM discovery, allowing for more concrete future implementations.
Though KM gained through tacit knowledge is difficult to measure with respect to cost/benefit, the opportunity to create tangible result from intangible pursuits effectively allow companies to compete and lay the groundwork for a competitive edge. My company organization uses observation, research, technology, and consumer feedback to capture data. Strategies for knowledge discovery in place include data gathering by interview, networking, professional organization seminars, and online research.  I plan to expand discovery and capture by adding a blog allowing feedback to my organization in which clients can share case studies and success stories resulting from performing services provided by my firm.  I also intend to add blogs to my client websites so more information sharing can occur with valid feedback.

Knowledge sharing. Technology allows electronic communication of graphics, articles, data, and personal information.  Traditional tools such as the phone, e-mail, the Internet, the intranet, and texting are in place.  I plan to continue to experiment with emerging technologies and applications as potential avenues of information sharing.

Knowledge management. Knowledge Management (KM) is the practice of maximizing the use of knowledge resources in organizations (Becerra-Fernandez (2004).  Resources divided into two main categories; subjective employee knowledge, and objective knowledge stemmed from organizational artifacts.  In my workplace, I expect to employ the major practices discussed by implementing strategies in the virtual environment of the web.

The process of knowledge discovery is ongoing.  Following trends in social media daily by reading industry newsletters, blogs, webinars, Internet radio, and Internet TV allow me to determine tactics for clients based on ideas, innovations, and the experiences of others. Knowledge capture is integrally tied to discovery, as I combine the results of my firm, tactics practiced by clients and measure this information with ideas learned in discovery.

Knowledge sharing is customized in my industry, no formula for success is guaranteed.  I share to further my organizational goals and those of my clients via tactical experimentation.  The connectivity that technology provides allows for mass sharing of data in both directions.  I view KM practices as an interrelated cycle.

Leadership and management in a KM organization. My management and leadership journey does support the idea that leadership is both an art and a science.  I strive as a transformational leader to practice self-awareness and confidence.  As leadership is not sought for personal ego satisfaction, exchanges between leader and follower are genuine and mutually beneficial. Behavior is summarized as supporting the organizational goals and vision, linking to personal follower goals, and displaying emotional intelligence. Dynamics of the economy, innovation, globalization and competition demands customized leadership solutions and strategies that employ the benevolent aspects of all leadership styles.

Technology in a KM organization. To compete effectively in the current business environment, especially in technology-based businesses such as online universities and e-commerce companies, access to timely and reliable information is crucial.  Several critical challenges must be overcome.  These challenges include the timeliness of information, the accuracy of information in a global marketplace, and viable critical thinking skills to create and execute strategy. E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership.  Technology allows business to use emerging media in which there is no reliable blueprint for profitability and success.  In times of rapid technological information, continual learning and knowledge development and KM surveying is the ideal standard.

In using knowledge sharing systems, my organization considers the asynchronous global nature of information shared.  To maximize my mission, vision, and values as well as the mission, vision and values of my clients, I take the following qualities into consideration: accurate knowledge, speed of delivery, asynchronous delivery, and security.  Knowledge sharing systems I rely on include the Internet, databases, web-based applications, and mobile applications. “The organization takes feedback from users – their experience and knowledge about a product – and combines it with the technical knowledge of their development staff to create new knowledge, for example best practices and lessons learned and ultimately new products ” (Becerra-Fernandez et al, 2004, p. 306). By understanding the dynamic business environment online, vulnerabilities in strategic execution can be avoided.  The backbone of potential success is knowledge sharing, defined as accessing the necessary information, discerning the quality and timeliness of the data, and sharing the information learned critically.

I can apply the new knowledge to the company using a knowledge-based system customized to the organization. The learning capacity and effectiveness of the company is increases with the shared knowledge.  Becerra-Fernandez, Gonzalez, and Sabherwal (2004) said that: “Knowledge management does not always need to use knowledge to solve problems, but it may also support knowledge capture for humans to learn in the future” (p. 114). I therefore view knowledge management activities as continuing data collection and interpretation, the data may be used in the future to support a specified goal or strategy.

Illumination – My Philosophy of Knowledge in Practice

At the start of this class, I practiced data gathering, comparing and contrasting ideas, and applying intuitive insights toward analysis for decision making.  This course significantly broadened my approach as I explored historical definitions of knowledge and epistemology. Various types of knowledge and methods of knowledge acquisition were analyzed. Justification of knowledge and different views of reasoning outlined by ancient philosophies illustrate the complexity of human cognitive development, as knowledge created must be applied. Competitive companies boost the competitive edge by implementing KM tactics, which include knowledge discovery, knowledge capture, and knowledge sharing. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) admit organizational benefits realized when a KM system is used.
Organizations practicing KM require organizational leadership approaches that support the Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) implemented.  A KM leader maximizes organizational potential by practicing appropriate leadership strategies matching needs of the tasks, goals, and stakeholders. Emerging technologies provide tools to allow for effective KM by doing KBS. Interventions are aligned with the vision, mission, and values of the organization. I am working to clarify and fine tune my philosophy of knowledge, considering the broad spectrum of possibility and opportunity for implementation in all areas of my life.

References

Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge Management: Challenges, Solutions, and Technologies (1 ed.). Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=415ddcdb-e59e-4684-8d88-1526b6f7c641&assetmetaid=1d16e9b7-44b6-47cf-8ae0-1b28aff8efb4

Brain, M. (2010). How Blogs Work. Retrieved from: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/social-networking/information/blog.htm

Definition of epistemology (May, 2010).  Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Epistemology

Denning, S (2002). What is Knowledge. Retrieved from www.stevendenning.com

Fumerton, R. (2005). Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/

Haack, S. (1993). Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology. Wiley-Blackwell.

Heylighen, F. (Sept. 1993, Sept. 1993). Epistemology, introduction. Principia Cybernetica Web. Retrieved from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/EPISTEMI.html

Holt, t. (2005). Epistemic Justification. Theory of Knowledge.info. http://www.theoryofknowledge.info/justification.html

Moser, P. K., & Vander Nat, A. (2002). Human Knowledge: Classical and Contemporary Approaches. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=2f143826-c2df-4b52-acfa-0d74d75b3f33&assetmetaid=54c28435-ea91-4051-b097-15a3cb373626

Nonaka, I., & Nishiguchi , T. (2001). Knowledge Emergence; Social Technical, and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=1795ff77-1bf7-477c-a758-f5c585b02750&assetmetaid=b43142d1-6720-4de0-90eb-117eb186fb3b

Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. (1989, January 10). Retrieved from http://news.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential.com

Stroud, B. (2002). Understanding Human Knowledge Philosophical Essays. doi: 10.1093/0199252130.001.0001

The Influence of Information Literacy on Scholarship, Practice, and Leadership in E-Commerce Consulting

The U.S. Department of Commerce (2009) website indicates that for the 2^nd Quarter of 2009, retail e-commerce sales growth increased 2.2 % at $32.4 billion although retail sales decreased.  Clearly, the paradigm shift toward technology based business models for success require scholarship, practice and leadership that is current, effective and practical in an unclear economy.  Leadership and survival in e-commerce are dependent on resources from others. Relevant and current information is necessary to compete in technology-based business.   The fast pace of emerging technology requires reliable, current information to formulate accurate strategy.

Information: Survival of the Fittest

According to the Presidential committee on information literacy (1989), “Information literacy is a survival skill in the Information Age.” (Final Report, para. 20).  To effectively compete in the current business environment, especially in technology based businesses such as online universities and e-commerce companies, access to timely and reliable information is crucial.  Several critical challenges must be overcome.  These challenges include the timeliness of information, the accuracy of information in a global marketplace, and viable critical thinking skills to create and execute strategy.

Timely Information

E-Commerce business success is dependent on strong practice and leadership.  Technology allows business to use emerging media in which there is no reliable blueprint for profitability and success.  In absence of a solid history of strategic planning, leaders must rely heavily on outside information. Zabel (2004) discusses the limited use of libraries and librarians as well as the lack of skills by students to effectively use these tools.  However, should students and business owners rely on information that is not updated at a pace congruent with the online economy?  Though resources are disbursed and discernment is necessary, it appears that the Internet provides a timely source of information. The challenge in information literacy is in finding reliable information that is current.

Information Literacy in a Global Marketplace

According to Lauer and Yodanis (2004, July) students in the United States are lacking a global perspective.  This international illiteracy negatively affects the comprehension of available information that could facilitate a greater competitive force in the global economy.  E-Commerce is business without walls, and a low-cost entry toward globalized business is an attainable goal.  Critical thinking and information literacy facilitates business competitive forces in globalization.

The Need for Information Literacy in Strategy

To successfully direct an online business (whether in the role of consultant or business owner) some solid skills are required.  Due to the fast pace of an e-commerce business and the opportunity for success, these goals are challenging in our current information dependent society (Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. 1989, January 10). Success in the information age can be impacted by decisions based on poor information or data that is obsolete.  Information literacy, whether in scholarly, practice or leadership pursuits is reliant on sharp thinking and analysis of information that is relevant, accurate and timely.  To achieve this outcome, a solid skill set and discernment as well as experience are required.

Conclusion

By understanding the dynamic business environment online, vulnerabilities in strategic execution can be avoided.  The backbone of potential success is information literacy, defined as accessing the necessary information, discerning the quality and timeliness of the data, and applying the information learned critically.  This path can lead to success in the e-commerce environment.

As a business practitioner and leader, I believe a strong level of attention should be given to training and developing students and society in research, comprehension and application.  Many traditional techniques are dated, and not applicable in a fast-moving economy.

Information literacy goes beyond mere influence in e-commerce; it is a necessity for survival, profitability and growth.

References

Lauer, S. R., & Yodanis, C. L. (2004, July). The international social survey programme (ISSP): A tool for teaching with an international perspective. Teaching Sociology, 32(3), 304.

Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. (1989, January 10). Retrieved October 22, 2008 from http://news.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential.cfm.

U.S. Department of Commerce. (2009). U.S. Census Bureau News. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/09q2.pdf , January 12, 2010

Zabel, D. (2004, January). A reaction to “information literacy and higher education”. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 30(1), 17-21.

Leadership Models and Theories

Leadership Models and Theories

In weighing the options for using individual or combined leadership theories in organizational settings, there are many factors to consider. To determine the most cost-effective and feasible solution, several of these factors will be analyzed and recommendations set forth based on this analysis. Among the factors considered are the organization, the vision and goals of the company, culture, traits of followers, and implications of the use of each theory analyzed.

According to Clawson (2006) developing and understanding leadership is elusive.  The six categories of leadership are: trait, power and influence, situational, behavior, transformational, and charismatic.  With many organizations underperforming expectations, savvy leadership is a coveted asset.  Wren (1995) indicates organizations need solid leadership and management. Leadership facilitates change and management facilitates complexity. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast four major leadership theories or models: trait leadership, situational leadership, charismatic leadership, and transformational leadership.  In real life situations these models are used in synergy and often overlap; however for the purposes of this dialog each leadership theory will be analyzed and assessed on its own merit.

Discussion of Individual Leadership Theories

Trait Leadership

Trait leadership is one of the first theories to emerge in this field (Clawson, 2006) and this model of leadership is predicated on characteristics or traits that are deemed necessary for successful leadership.  It is believed particular traits possessed by individuals make them natural leaders.  The basis of this theory is the saying “Leaders are born, not made.”  It is implied therefore, which leadership skills cannot be learned, one must be born with specific traits to lead.

Traits for successful leadership include a drive for responsibility, persistence in completing goals, task completion, problem solving, social initiative, self-confidence and personal identity, responsibility for decisions made and actions taken, a tolerance for stress and frustration, the ability to influence and the capacity to structure social systems (Stogdill & Bass, 1981) .  Self assessment of these traits is accomplished via a 10-point scale questionnaire. Several other variations of this model include varying traits.  A respected leadership author, John Gardner includes willingness to accept responsibility, need to achieve, ability to motivate, capacity to win and hold trust, among other virtues (Gardner, 1990).

In the 1950s organizations grew frustrated with the trait approach to leadership.  While outlining general traits to success, the approach is limiting and does not account for personal development and learning.  Trait identification is based on personality tests, which are limited and possibly flawed. Other limitations in today’s organizational marketplace would include lack of technical focus and flexibility.  Trait leadership potentially can breed egoism as it deems leadership capabilities as genetic attributes.  Additionally, modern values of diversity are generally neglected when considering trait leadership, and traditional organizational leaders in the 1950’s were white males. An example of trait leadership would be to only promote white males with a specific IQ level and demonstrated public speaking ability. Contemporary uses of trait leadership are visible as strong cognitive skills are mandatory in today’s dynamic marketplace.

Situational Leadership

The leadership theory of situational leadership rose to prominence in the 1950s as research focus shifted to what leaders do at work and the effectiveness of these actions (Clawson, 2006).  John Kotter gathered data from 900 senior executives in 100 American corporations.  He indicates, “Leadership is defined as the process of moving a group in some direction through mostly noncoercive means” (Kotter, 1990, p. 5). Although various leadership characteristics are identified, a basic blueprint for successful management includes: vision development, a workable plan to implement the strategy, teamwork and cooperation, hard work toward the vision. The development of leadership skills through education and work experience is accepted and acknowledged.  Organizations in which leadership is weak demonstrated managerial problems like frustration, high turnover, lack of skills, no mentoring or coaching and limited opportunities. Thus, outcomes and results from leadership activities became the focus (Ulrich, Zenger, & Smallwood, 1999).

An effective philosophy when the growth stage of an organization is considered and strategy is matched to leadership need is found in situational leadership. An example of situational leadership is implementing a social media marketing plan to build a brand and generate revenue for a new e-commerce company.  The strategy may employ tools such as SEO, Twitter, and Facebook that a more mature firm would not embrace.  The fast-paced, fluid impact of technology requires sound situational analysis and appropriate strategy execution.

Charismatic Leadership

As Avolio and Yammarino (2002) indicate, exemplary characteristics of a leader are observable via charismatic leadership.  This naïve viewpoint assumes the followers attribute observed behavior of the leader as characteristics.  In charismatic leadership, the leader strives to create a positive impression. Considerable energy extends to image control and self-presentation.  As followers react to contrived behavior, the relationship between leader and follower is predicated upon deception.

The charismatic leader generally experiences dissonance based on the manipulated self image and presentation.  Ego conflicts result because of reduced coherence and fragmentation.  In many instances, as the follower idealizes the leader based on contrived impressions, and responds to the false persona.  The leader may lose emotional coping skills such as accurate self awareness and self confidence.  Wren (1995) attributes manipulation as a natural component of leadership as ruthlessness is sometimes necessary to meet objectives.

Conversely, a charismatic leader is a good communicator.  A solid leader must communicate and instill a new vision in followers.  Charismatic leaders are enthusiastic, personable, energetic, and envisioning. Creating an emotional high for followers to buy into is a tactic to create a new reality.  If a leader is purely charismatic, this hype can lead to disappointment.  Reality may illuminate unrealistic expectations, limitations that were not accounted for, unclear communications, potential distrust and betrayal, and the need for continuing hype (Wren, 1995).

A danger of a charismatic leader is potential damage occurred by false promises and unrealistic outcomes.  A current example would be the Bernie Madoff Ponzi Scheme in which thousands of individuals and companies participated in a fraudulent investment plan that promised an unrealistic return.  The charm of Madoff overrode the common sensibilities of many organizational decision makers. In contrast, a charismatic leader successfully can mobilize a group of followers into action.

Transformational Leadership

The concept of transformational leadership is perhaps the current ideal.  In transformational leadership the relationship between leader and follower is positive.  Following the philosophy of win-win, the intention of transformational leading is to meet objectives, but also provide growth and personal development for followers.  As Avolio and Yammarino (2002) discuss, transformational leadership brings benefits to followers such as intellectual stimulation, motivation, idealized influence, and personal consideration.  The follower is given an opportunity to go beyond creating a new vision set by the leader.  The follower experiences personal growth on the journey to organizational change.

A transformational leader is a willing role model. Transformational leaders are self-aware and confident.  True confidence and competence translates into organizational success.  As leadership is not sought for personal ego gratification, exchanges between leader and follower are genuine and mutually beneficial. Transformational leaders treat others well, and are often nurturing.  An emphasis is placed on optimism, enthusiasm, and relationships. Behavior is summarized as supporting the organizational goals and vision, linking to personal follower goals, and demonstrating emotional intelligence, Avolio and Yammarino (2002). As learners, we have many leaders.  But the leaders are a solid example of a transformational style.  As followers, we are held to high expectations, nurtured, and guided to a new vision with optimism.

Analysis and Comparison of Leadership Styles

In comparing and contrasting the four major leadership theories: Trait Leadership, Situational Leadership, Charismatic Leadership and Transformational Leadership, each theory is discussed as if used individually.  Real-world leadership is a fluid combination of styles is often employed by the leader to creatively solve problems and accomplish change.

Of further interest is the timeline in which the theories evolved compared with progression of modern organizations.  Pure trait leadership considers attributes that are not learned but genetic.  One could argue that charismatic leadership uses natural talent as well…not everyone can learn to generate charisma.  Situational leadership and transformational leadership make use of learned skills that are obtained by formal education and experience.  A concern of trait, situational, and charismatic leaders is the treatment of followers.  Transformational leadership is the only style that puts significance on the welfare of followers.

Conclusion

Traits important to leadership include self confidence and intelligence, honesty, business acumen, comprehension of technology. Situational leadership recognizes organizational cycles and matches strategy to a scenario, thereby creating an appropriate and viable solution. Charisma in a leader is desirable, as long as there is substance beneath the charm.  Charismatic enthusiasm generates energy to facilitate change. Transformational leadership considers the relationship with followers important.  Optimism and linking follower goals with organizational objectives creates a win-win dynamic.

Wren (1995) states that leadership is intangible, and as a practice is considered a form of creativity.  This intangible creative force challenges us as leaders. Dynamics of the economy, innovation, globalization and competition demands customized leadership solutions and strategies that employ the benevolent aspects of all leadership styles.

References

Avolio, B. J., & Yammarino, F. J. (2002). Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead. San Diego, CA: Emerald.

Clawson, J. (2006). Level Three Leadership: Getting Below the Surface (3 ed.). Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=f6a36fd6-c9d0-4a61-8447-a142e5cf3c4e&assetmetaid=76b15418-49d2-411e-84ee-4e438f29333d

Gardner, J. (Ed.). (1990). On Leadership. New York: Free Press.

Kotter, J. (1990, May-June). What Leaders Really Do. Harvard Business Review, 3.

Stogdill, R. M., & Bass, B. M. (Eds.). (1981). Stogdill’s’ Handbook of Leadership. New York: The Free Press.

Ulrich, D., Zenger, J., & Smallwood, N. (Eds.). (1999). Results-Based Leadership. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Wren, J. T. (1995). The leader’s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages. New York: The Free Press.

Perspective on Knowledge acquired by a Sensory Experience

Perspective on Knowledge acquired by a Sensory Experience

The purpose of this paper is to determine, analyze, and discuss my perspective on knowledge that I acquired by a sensory experience.  The philosophy of what knowledge is provides complex debate throughout the ages.  Dictionary.com (2010) states that knowledge is a state of knowing, perceived truth, and clarity in understanding.  Various approaches throughout history define ideas of thought, and the purpose of doctoral studies is for learners to clarify individual philosophies about the rationale, role, and use of knowledge. I attended an event at the Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA) in Los Angeles.  This analysis shares the experience of Stimuli~Sensation~Knowledge I sensed while viewing the artwork at the museum.

What is Knowledge?

The Greek philosopher Plato explained knowledge as tied to and supported by reason.  Plato further assessed that knowledge is only what cannot be changed. Ancient philosophers further distinguished knowledge into types: a priori knowledge, a posteriori knowledge, knowledge by description, knowledge, acquaintance knowledge, and knowledge of how to do something (Moser, 2002). A priori knowledge is nonempirical knowledge received through reason and understanding. An example of a priori knowledge is information true by definition such as “five times two equals ten”. A posteriori knowledge is empirical information gained through sensory experience such as “these lemons taste bitter”.

Tacit knowledge is personal and difficult to share.  Tacit knowledge contains subjective insight, hunches, and intuition.  This knowledge is challenging to explain as it is deeply experiential, and “in the ideals, values, or emotions” (Nonaka & Nishiguchi, 2001, p. 14). As discussed below, I initially had difficulty interpreting and expressing the emotive qualities evoked by the artwork I observed.  The intention of the artist was to provoke the psyche, so deep intuitive experiences emerged.

Empiricism recognizes the relationship of probability and knowledge, and considers pure reason unlikely. Aristotle is the founder of empiricism, which considers all knowledge as posteriori. Aristotle considered logical data gathering, but Plato accepted awareness in defining universal forms (Heylighten, 1993). David Hume furthered empiricism by considering sensory information about perception and reflection.  A philosophy of Logical Positivism emerged regarding statements significant if proven either true or false (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 20).

Later thinkers point out knowledge as the relationship between ideas in a topic or area (Becerra-Fernandez, 2004).  Contemporary examples of relational data management include relational database management systems. Various schools of thought on gaining and creating knowledge influence my exploration about knowledge itself.  Historical definitions provide a framework of understanding and exploration through logical and organic methods.  My views on knowledge are fluid; I view the historic introduction toward knowledge acquisition as a springboard for broad inquiry and inclusive of reasoning and sensory data gathering.

The Senses and Epistemology

Epistemology is a field within philosophy that studies the “origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge” according to Dictionary.com (2010).  The premise of epistemology is that it tries to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge. My sensory experience at the museum was highly personal and subjective.  As such, it would be difficult to classify as true knowledge to anyone besides myself. Plato focused on Ancient Greek policies and society. Descartes epistemology is foundationalism, he searches for absolute certainty in knowledge by subjecting doubt to everything. Kant and Hume delved into the societal environments they experienced.  Kant challenged pure understanding by recognizing individual perceptions, (Moser, 2002).  Nonaka’s (2001) contemporary epistemological theories integrate with science exploring the potential for artificial intelligence.

My senses are how I perceive and gain information about the world.  Epistemology is how I think, evaluate true and false data, and organize information. To acquire understanding about the world, I employ reason. Logic drives consistency in the information and knowledge I manage. I use objectivity to associate knowledge and discover its usefulness and force. Ideas are abstractions of reality to be analyzed. Rationality is a means to construct a correct epistemology. The extent of correctness in my epistemology is the degree of understanding reality, and effectiveness in achieving goals and objectives.

In classical modern philosophy, rationalism is rejected in favor of sensory experience.  Prominent philosophers of this era include Rene Descartes and Immanuel Kant.  An alternative form of rationalism or empiricism stressing logical connections between nature and a priori knowledge developed. Pragmatism allows the opportunity to reason and create a workable model that allows logical leaps of faith (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 9). According to Stoud (2002), “The philosophical study of human knowledge seeks to understand what human knowledge is and how it comes to be.” My senses are how I perceive and gain information about the world.  The future to gaining knowledge is by focusing on physiological data, though my intuition tells me types of information and understanding must be experientially gained. The following experience at MOCA discusses tacit knowledge obtained through a sensory experience.

The Sensory Experience

I attended an event at the Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA) in Los Angeles.  The purpose of this dialogue is to share the Stimuli~Sensation~Knowledge I perceived while viewing the artwork at the museum. I toured a museum with some friends.  As we viewed the various works of art, we shared our ideas and perceptions.  Although many paintings evoked deep emotional responses, it became clear canvas after canvas that the quality and range of emotions were different.  Based on Kuhn’s (n.d.) assertion that different people experiencing the same stimuli perceive a variety of sensations, I realized to process to knowledge of the significance of these works or art may take personal reflection and guidance.

Stimuli~Sensation

As I entered the museum leaving behind the breezy California air, I greeted an exhibit filled with active, American works in the style of Abstract Expressionism.  Abstract Expressionism is an approach to art explored by masters such as Kandinsky, Miro, Van Gogh, and Matisse.  The work is introspective, spiritual, and  philosophically tied to existentialism (MOCA, 2010).

Crossing the threshold into the gallery, my senses noticed several colorful murals splashed with paint in various colors.  My early reaction to viewing the canvases before me was one of confusion.  I thought I would come to knowledge without guidance, however, the knowledge sought needed pursuit.

Stimuli~Sensation~Knowledge

As I continued to greet colorful splashes of paint, I became surprised at the intensity, range, and depth of emotions evoked by viewing various works of art.  According to Brewster (2007) “The sole measure of an artwork is the cultural opinion of value assigned to it.” My wanderings through the gallery led me to wonder if my cultural perception is missing an understanding of the value of the works in the room.

Reading some MOCA literature led me to understand that Abstract Expressionism values self-expression that is psychic.  I decided the intense vibration of energy I feel looking at these paintings are perhaps the psychological unconscious of the artist sending messages that cannot be articulated verbally, but are worthy of expression and experience. I agree with Kuhn that “the route from stimuli to sensation is in part conditioned by education” (Kuhn, n.d.).

Though sensations articulated by others were similar, I found the emotions shared to be a combination of opinions, prior influences, and the current state of mind of the individual. Most knowledge acquired was tacit, therefore difficult to voice because of the emotive experiential essence of the works viewed.

Analysis

As individuals, we have varying means of justifying information that is personally relevant and based on individual background, assumptions, and education.  For example, I already notice my perception and evaluation of information is difference since entering the doctoral program.  So it is rational to infer that individual methods of justification change over the course of our lives, as we gain more experience and education.

According to Holt (2005), ”Justification, according to the tripartite theory of knowledge, is the difference between merely believing something that is true, and knowing it. To have knowledge, on this account, we must have justification.”  The tripartite theory of knowledge dates back to Plato, and discusses inferential justification for validation.  First, it must be validated by another accepted foundational idea and secondly the other idea must be believed. Finally, we need a good reason to believe the foundational idea is true.  A belief is then justified based on another underlying accepted belief. An example is the clarity of perception of my emotional experiences, provided by the artwork at MOCA. Learning about Abstract Expressionism provided an accepted foundation of thought to build my experiences of knowledge on.

An understanding of the neuro-physiological dimensions of cognition provides a fundamental scientific understanding of how neurons transmit data. The relationship between physical brain activity and philosophy of knowledge is an area of exploration, query, and experimentation for many psychologists.  Neuro-physiological dimensions of cognition do not account for intuition, interpretation, and individual logic or reason. An example is two individuals witnessing a crime.  Each individual looking at the same scene with different inherent filters will recall variations to the experienced events.

Nonaka and Nishiguchi (2001) discuss four “methods of knowledge conversion” to create, understand and share knowledge – they are “socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization of knowledge” (p.  27). They go on to state that “physical, face-to-face experiences are the key in converting tacit experiences into tacit knowledge” (Nonaka & Nishiguchi, 2001, p. 32).  The intuitive impulses and understanding I experienced while viewing the Abstract Expressionist artwork, converted to experiential knowledge is an example of the physical manifestation of knowledge conversion.
To further explore these points, I researched the effects of meditation on the brain.    Numerous studies indicate that mediators over time experience significant changes in gray matter, and can manage emotions better as a result.  According to a UCLA study (2009), “Research has confirmed the beneficial aspects of meditation. In addition to having better focus and control over their emotions, many people who meditate regularly have reduced levels of stress and bolstered immune systems. But less is known about the link between meditation and brain structure.” It appears the effect of cognitive behavior influences knowledge, though continued studies are necessary to determine links clearly between developments of knowledge through cognitive experiences.

Conclusion

The experience of gaining knowledge acquired by sensory experience was successful.  I learned a couple of lessons in the process I want to share.  First, some sensory stimulative experiences require some processing and reflection to comprehend.  My reaction to the artwork viewed was initially confusion.  I experienced unfamiliar emotions that were difficult to express.  The literature provided my MOCA gave a foundation of information that I could build my interpretations upon.  I touched an introspective, spiritual part of my psyche that I previously ignored.  The knowledge acquired is tacit, and difficult to verbalize, though knowing I have personal dimensions to explore will serve to broaden my range of experience and emotion.

References

Becerra-Fernandez, Gonzalez, & Sabherwal. (2004). Knowledge management: Challenges, solutions, and technologies. Retrieved April 27, 2010 from https://ecampus.phoeniz.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/eReader.aspx

Brewster, D. (2007). Perception rules OK THE ART MARKET. Financial Times London  p.9. Retrieved from Proquest doi: 1297038931

Definition of epistemology.  Retrieved from : http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/epistemology

Definition of Knowledge (2010). Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/knowledge on May 12, 2010.

Heylighen, F. (Sept. 1993, Sept. 1993). Epistemology, introduction. Principia Cybernetica Web. Retrieved from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/EPISTEMI.html

Holt, t. (2005). Epistemic Justification. Theory of Knowledge.info. http://www.theoryofknowledge.info/justification.html

Kuhn, T. (n.d.), On People, stimuli and sensations. Retrieved from
http://www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen.nsf/id/X0001D3C6/

MOCA (2010) Abstract Expressionism.  Retrieved from: http://www.moca.org/pc/viewArtTerm.php?id=1

Moser, P. K., & Vander Nat, A. (2002). Human knowledge: Classical and

Contemporary approaches (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Nonaka, I.and Nishiguchi, T. (Eds.). (2001). Knowledge Emergence: Social, technical,

and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Stroud, B. (2002). Understanding Human Knowledge Philosophical Essays. doi: 10.1093/0199252130.001.0001

University of California – Los Angeles (2009, May 13). Meditation May Increase Gray Matter. ScienceDaily. Retrieved May 21, 2010, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090512134655.htm

Philosophies of Knowledge

Philosophies and Theories of Knowledge

The purpose of this essay is to discuss various historical philosophies and theories of knowledge and their approaches to evaluate truth, while clarifying personal viewpoints and showing a position of inquiry as a step to develop thinking. As a learner, goals include setting up a solid foundation of awareness about how thinking occurs to expand insight and effectiveness toward critical thought. As philosophies explored, tried, and deconstructed, personal inquiry aims to create new thought methods for future application toward new knowledge creation. Focus is on analyzing the nature of knowledge and its relationship to belief, justification and, truth.

Definition of Epistemology

Epistemology is a field within philosophy that studies the “origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge” according to Dictionary.com (2010).  The premise of epistemology is that it tries to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge. Plato focused on Ancient Greek policies and society. Descartes epistemology is foundationalism, he searches for absolute certainty in knowledge by subjecting doubt to everything. Kant and Hume delved into the societal environments they experienced.  Kant challenged pure understanding by recognizing individual perceptions, (Moser, 2002).  Nonaka’s (2001) modern epistemological theories integrate with science exploring the potential for artificial intelligence.

Definitions of Knowledge

The philosophy of what knowledge is provides complex debate throughout the ages.  Dictionary.com (2010) states that knowledge is a state of knowing, perceived truth, and clarity in understanding.  Various approaches throughout history define ideas of thought, and the purpose of doctoral studies is for learners to clarify individual philosophies about the rationale, role, and use of information.

Forms of Knowledge

The Greek philosopher Plato explained knowledge as tied to and supported by reason.  Plato further assessed that knowledge is only what cannot be changed. Ancient philosophers further distinguished knowledge into types: a priori knowledge, a posteriori knowledge, knowledge by description, knowledge, acquaintance knowledge, and knowledge of how to do something (Moser, 2002).

A priori knowledge is nonempirical knowledge received through reason and understanding. An example of a priori knowledge is information true by definition such as “five times two equals ten”. A posteriori knowledge is empirical information obtained through sensory experience such as “these lemons taste bitter”.

Nature of Knowledge

Empiricism recognizes the relationship of probability and knowledge, and considers pure reason unlikely. Aristotle, as the founder of empiricism states knowledge as posteriori. Aristotle considered logical data gathering, although Plato accepted awareness in defining universal forms (Heylighten, 1993). David Hume furthered empiricism by considering sensory information for perception and reflection.  A philosophy of Logical Positivism shaped, about statements

significant if proven either true or false (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 20).

Knowledge and Belief

Later thinkers point out knowledge as the relationship between ideas in a topic or area (Becerra-Fernandez, 2004).  Contemporary examples of relational data management include relational database management systems. Various schools of thought on gaining and creating knowledge influence my exploration about knowledge itself.  Historical definitions provide a framework of understanding and exploration through logical and organic methods.  My views on knowledge are not fixed; I view the historical introduction toward knowledge acquisition as a springboard for inquiry to facilitate broad and inclusive reasoning and sensory data gathering.

Types of Knowledge

General  and Specific

According to Becerrra-Fernandez, Gonzalez & Saberwal (2004), several types of knowledge exist such as general, specific, technical, contextual, declarative, and procedural. General knowledge is common knowledge, referring to facts accepted and shared by society.  An example of general knowledge is social graces and manner practiced in the United States.  Specific knowledge is shared knowledge by a select group of people.  An example of specific knowledge is information understood by computer programmers.  Those individuals versed in the Java programming language communicate and perform tasks requiring knowledge of Java programming.

Explicit and Tacit

According to Nonaka & Nishiguchi (2001, p14), “there are two kinds of knowledge: explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.  Explicit knowledge can be expressed in words and number and shared in the form of data, scientific formulae, specifications, manuals and the like”. Tacit knowledge is esoteric and subjective, including intuition and sensory experiences.  Tacit knowledge is difficult to analyze because of its personal nature (Nonaka & Nishiguchi, 2001, p14).

Historical Overview: Classical, Modern, and Contemporary Philosophies of Knowledge

Classical Philosophies

Exploring the philosophy of knowledge grew from works of the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.  Both agreed on the fixed nature of knowledge as absolute and did not acknowledge relativity.  Plato further defined knowledge as “justified true belief” supported by reason, (Moser, 2002).

Subsequently, the major philosophies of empiricism and rationalism developed after the Renaissance period. Empiricism considers knowledge gained by personal sensory experiences, although rationalism confirms knowledge gained through rational thought.

Empiricism

The core of empiricism is the belief in the likelihood of knowledge, confirming experiences gained by senses. Inductive reasoning is a valued method of gaining knowledge. The founder of empiricism is Aristotle (384–322 BC), though rational theories included in his philosophies.  Other empiricists are Epicurus, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon and John Locke, and George Berkley.  David Hume improved empiricism theorizing that knowledge comes not only from sensory experience but also our reflections of these perceptions. Logical Positivism establishes a verified statement that is proven true or false by means of experience (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 20), creating a bridge between real and abstract theoretical ideas.

Rationalism

The crux of rationalism is predicated on reason.  Plato and other rationalists relied on foundational truths existing outside of sensory experience.  The concern of relying on a non-physical world unchanging is flawed, as our physical world is in a continued state of flux and change.  Plato lists three main aspects of knowledge: belief, truth, and justification (Becerra, Gonzalez, & Sabherval, 2002).

Classical Modern Philosophy

In classical modern philosophy, rationalism is rejected in favor of sensory experience.  Prominent philosophers of this era include Rene Descartes and Immanuel Kant.  An alternative form of rationalism or empiricism was developed, stressing logical connections between nature and a priori knowledge.

Pragmatism

The idea of absolute truth is discounted in pragmatist philosophy. The opportunity to embrace knowledge gained though assumptions are valid, though some assumptions may be proven false in the future.  Usefulness of created knowledge is acknowledged though absolute truth is not sought, allowing progressive projections of information. Pragmatism allows the opportunity to reason and create a workable model that allows logical leaps of faith (Moser & Vander Nat, 2003, p. 9).

Personal Philosophical Concerns and Planned Epistemic Expectations

According to Stoud (2002), “The philosophical study of human knowledge seeks to understand what human knowledge is and how it comes to be”. My senses are how I perceive and gain information about the world.  Epistemology is how I think, evaluate true and false data, and organize information. To acquire understanding about the world, I employ reason. Logic drives consistency in the information and knowledge I manage. I use objectivity to associate knowledge and discover its usefulness and force. Ideas are abstractions of reality to be analyzed. I agree with Drucker’s (1999) focus on productivity and tasks. Rationality is a means to construct a correct epistemology. The extent of correctness in my epistemology is the degree of understanding reality, and effectiveness in achieving goals and objectives.

References

Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge Management: Challenges, Solutions, and Technologies (1 ed.). Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=415ddcdb-e59e-4684-8d88-1526b6f7c641&assetmetaid=1d16e9b7-44b6-47cf-8ae0-1b28aff8efb4

Definition of epistemology (May, 2010).  Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Epistemology

Drucker, P. F. (Winter, 1999, Winter, 1999). Knowledge-worker productivity: The biggest challenge. California Management Review, 41, 79. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdweb?did=39818809&sid=8&Fmt=3&clientId=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD

Heylighen, F. (Sept. 1993, Sept. 1993). Epistemology, introduction. Principia Cybernetica Web. Retrieved from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/EPISTEMI.html

Moser, P. K., & Vander Nat, A. (2002). Human Knowledge: Classical and Contemporary Approaches. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=2f143826-c2df-4b52-acfa-0d74d75b3f33&assetmetaid=54c28435-ea91-4051-b097-15a3cb373626

Nonaka, I., & Nishiguchi , T. (2001). Knowledge Emergence; Social Technical, and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation. Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=1795ff77-1bf7-477c-a758-f5c585b02750&assetmetaid=b43142d1-6720-4de0-90eb-117eb186fb3b

Stroud, B. (2002). Understanding Human Knowledge Philosophical Essays. doi: 10.1093/0199252130.001.0001